Although the healthcare workforce mobility clause was added to the EPAs with Indonesia and Vietnam based on the JP-EPA precedent, there appeared to be an imbalance in terms of the economic benefits gained through pure trade between Japan and the two countries.
For example, Japan was interested in cutting tariffs on high-value-added products such as automobiles through the JP-EPA, while the Filipino side showed reluctance to this idea, instead favouring the liberalisation of workforce mobility (Kaku et al., 2010). The inclusion of healthcare workforce migration in the Japan-Philippines EPA (JP-EPA) was in dispute at the planning stage, because the JP-EPA without this provision might have been too advantageous for Japan, due to differences in export/import volume between Japan and the partner countries and in the economic values of these trade items.
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